Titanium Dioxide in Supplements: Why We Refuse to Use It
Understanding the science behind our commitment to filler-free formulations
Flip over nearly any supplement bottle, and you'll likely find titanium dioxide lurking in the inactive ingredients. This bright white powder—designated E171 in Europe—has been the industry's go-to additive for decades, used to create that pristine, pharmaceutical appearance consumers have come to expect. But appearances can be deceiving, and the science emerging about this ubiquitous ingredient is deeply concerning.
In May 2021, the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) dropped a bombshell: after reviewing thousands of studies, their expert panel concluded that titanium dioxide "can no longer be considered safe when used as a food additive."[1] The European Union subsequently banned E171 in food products, effective August 2022.[2] Yet remarkably, titanium dioxide remains perfectly legal in American supplements, vitamins, and countless processed foods.
At BioPhysics Essentials, we made the decision long before these regulatory actions to exclude titanium dioxide—along with microcrystalline cellulose, magnesium stearate, and synthetic flow agents—from our formulations. This article explains why we believe this commitment matters for your health, especially your gut microbiome.
Key Takeaways
- The European Union banned titanium dioxide (E171) as a food additive in 2022 after EFSA determined genotoxicity concerns could not be ruled out.[1][2]
- Research shows titanium dioxide nanoparticles can decrease beneficial gut bacteria, including Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus species essential for digestive health.[3]
- Studies demonstrate DNA strand breaks and chromosomal damage in cells and animal models exposed to titanium dioxide particles.[4]
- Titanium dioxide particles accumulate in organs including the liver and spleen, with at least 24% being nanoparticles smaller than 100 nanometers.[5]
- The FDA last reviewed titanium dioxide safety in 1973—over 50 years ago—and continues to permit its use in supplements and food.
- MicroBiome Restore contains zero titanium dioxide or other unnecessary fillers, reflecting our commitment to gut-friendly, science-backed supplementation.
What Is Titanium Dioxide?
Titanium dioxide (TiO₂) is an inorganic compound derived from naturally occurring titanium ores. Processed into a fine white powder, it's one of the most widely used pigments on the planet—found in everything from paint and sunscreen to toothpaste and pharmaceutical tablets. In the food and supplement industry, it goes by the designation E171 and serves primarily as a whitening and opacifying agent.
What makes titanium dioxide particularly concerning from a health perspective is its particle composition. Food-grade titanium dioxide typically contains a significant fraction of nanoparticles—particles smaller than 100 nanometers. EFSA's 2019 assessment determined that E171 can contain up to 50% nanoparticles by number, which fundamentally changes how the substance interacts with biological systems.[6]
The Nanoparticle Problem
Nanoparticles behave differently than larger particles of the same material. Their tiny size allows them to penetrate cell membranes, cross biological barriers, and accumulate in tissues where larger particles cannot reach. A study published in Particle and Fibre Toxicology found that titanium dioxide nanoparticles can translocate to systemic organs including the liver, spleen, and lungs after oral administration.[7]
This isn't merely a theoretical concern. Researchers examining post-mortem human tissues found titanium dioxide particles present in liver and spleen samples, with at least 24% of detected particles falling within the nanoparticle range.[5] The implications are profound: these particles don't simply pass through your digestive system—they can accumulate in your body over time.
Why Titanium Dioxide Is Used in Supplements
Understanding why manufacturers continue using titanium dioxide helps explain the scale of the problem. The additive serves several purposes in supplement formulation, none of which actually improve the supplement's effectiveness.
Aesthetic appeal: Titanium dioxide creates the bright white appearance consumers associate with pharmaceutical products. Research suggests people perceive whiter tablets and capsules as more potent and professional, driving manufacturers to prioritize appearance over purity.
Coating consistency: In tablet coatings, titanium dioxide helps create a uniform, opaque layer that masks the color of underlying ingredients. This is purely cosmetic—it doesn't affect how well the supplement works.
UV protection: For supplements in transparent packaging, titanium dioxide can provide some protection against light degradation. However, opaque packaging achieves the same goal without requiring additional additives.
Manufacturing convenience: As a flow agent, titanium dioxide helps prevent ingredients from clumping during production. This makes manufacturing easier but, again, provides no benefit to the consumer taking the supplement.
The Hidden Cost of "Clean" Appearance
That pristine white supplement may look pharmaceutical-grade, but consider what you're actually ingesting to achieve that aesthetic. When you choose supplements based on appearance rather than ingredient quality, you may be trading genuine health benefits for unnecessary fillers and flow agents that offer nothing but visual appeal—and potentially carry health risks.
The EFSA Ruling That Changed Everything
On May 6, 2021, EFSA published an updated safety assessment that fundamentally changed the regulatory landscape for titanium dioxide in Europe. After reviewing all available scientific evidence—including thousands of studies published since their 2016 assessment—the expert Panel on Food Additives and Flavourings reached a striking conclusion: genotoxicity concerns could not be ruled out.[1]
Key Findings from the 2021 Assessment
The EFSA panel's conclusions were comprehensive and concerning:
Genotoxicity potential: The panel determined that titanium dioxide particles have the potential to induce DNA strand breaks and chromosomal damage. While gene mutations were not observed, the inability to establish a safe threshold for genotoxicity was pivotal.[1]
Body accumulation: Although gastrointestinal absorption of titanium dioxide is low, the particles' long half-life means they can accumulate in the body over time. This accumulation raises concerns about chronic exposure effects.[1]
Additional toxicity concerns: The panel noted observations of potential immunotoxicity, inflammation, neurotoxicity (with nanoparticles), and the potential induction of aberrant crypt foci—precancerous lesions in the colon.[1]
No safe level established: Perhaps most significantly, EFSA could not establish an Acceptable Daily Intake (ADI) for titanium dioxide. When scientists cannot determine a safe consumption level, continued use becomes difficult to justify.
Prof. Maged Younes, Chair of EFSA's expert panel, stated: "Taking into account all available scientific studies and data, the Panel concluded that titanium dioxide can no longer be considered safe as a food additive. A critical element in reaching this conclusion is that we could not exclude genotoxicity concerns after consumption of titanium dioxide particles."[1]
The EU Ban
Following EFSA's recommendation, the European Commission moved decisively. Commission Regulation (EU) 2022/63, published January 18, 2022, banned titanium dioxide as a food additive throughout the European Union. After a six-month transition period, the full ban took effect on August 7, 2022.[2]
The regulation was clear: foods containing titanium dioxide produced after August 2022 cannot be placed on the EU market. This represents one of the most significant food additive regulatory actions in recent European history.
Impact on Your Gut Microbiome
For anyone taking supplements to support digestive health, the research on titanium dioxide's effects on the gut microbiome should raise immediate red flags. Multiple studies demonstrate that this common additive can disrupt the delicate bacterial ecosystem your gut depends on for optimal function.
Depleting Beneficial Bacteria
A pivotal study published in the Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry examined what happens when mice consume dietary titanium dioxide nanoparticles over 2-3 months. The findings were striking: while overall microbial diversity remained relatively stable, the abundance of several probiotic taxa—including Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus—significantly decreased.[3]
This matters profoundly. Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus species are precisely the beneficial bacteria most probiotic supplements aim to provide. If you're taking a probiotic that contains titanium dioxide as a filler, you may be undermining the very bacteria you're trying to introduce.
Triggering Intestinal Inflammation
The same research team found that titanium dioxide-exposed mice developed low-grade intestinal inflammation and showed aggravated responses to chemically-induced colitis. The particles reduced populations of regulatory T cells and macrophages in mesenteric lymph nodes—immune cells crucial for maintaining intestinal balance.[3]
A systematic review examining 18 animal studies on titanium dioxide and gut health concluded that exposure "might cause variations in abundance in specific bacterial species and lead to gut dysfunctions such as a reduction in SCFAs [short-chain fatty acids] levels, goblet cells and crypts, mucus production, and increased biomarkers of intestinal inflammation."[8]
Intestinal Barrier Damage
Research published in Science of the Total Environment revealed that titanium dioxide exposure in juvenile mice led to impaired intestinal barrier function. The expression of tight junction proteins—essential for maintaining the gut barrier—significantly decreased, while markers of intestinal permeability increased.[9]
When the intestinal barrier becomes compromised, a condition often called "leaky gut," bacterial components like lipopolysaccharides (LPS) can enter the bloodstream, triggering systemic inflammation. The research showed elevated LPS levels and inflammatory cytokines in serum, confirming this pathway.[9]
Protecting Your Gut Ecosystem
When we formulated MicroBiome Restore, we knew that including 26 probiotic strains would mean nothing if we simultaneously introduced ingredients that could harm those same beneficial bacteria. That's why you won't find titanium dioxide, microcrystalline cellulose, or any synthetic flow agents in our formulation. Every ingredient serves a purpose—supporting your gut microbiome, not undermining it. Learn more about our comprehensive formulation approach.
DNA Damage and Genotoxicity Concerns
The genotoxicity findings were central to EFSA's decision to declare titanium dioxide unsafe. But what does the research actually show, and why should supplement users be concerned?
Evidence of DNA Strand Breaks
A landmark study published in Cancer Research provided the first comprehensive in vivo evidence that titanium dioxide nanoparticles cause DNA damage in mice. Researchers found that TiO₂ nanoparticles induced multiple forms of DNA damage: single and double strand breaks, chromosomal damage, and oxidative DNA damage (measured as 8-hydroxy-2'-deoxyguanosine, or 8-OHdG).[4]
The formation of γ-H2AX foci—a marker of DNA double-strand breaks—showed a consistent dose-dependent response. Double-strand breaks are particularly concerning because they're among the most dangerous forms of DNA damage, capable of causing permanent genetic alterations if not properly repaired.[4]
Chromosomal Damage
Beyond simple strand breaks, research demonstrates that titanium dioxide can cause chromosomal abnormalities. A comprehensive genotoxicity evaluation published in Toxicology Letters found that oral exposure to titanium dioxide nanoparticles induced DNA double-strand breaks in bone marrow cells, with the γ-H2AX assay proving to be the most sensitive detection method.[10]
EFSA's expert panel noted in their assessment that "TiO₂ particles have the potential to induce DNA strand breaks and chromosomal damage" and critically, "a cut-off value for TiO₂ particle size with respect to genotoxicity could not be identified."[1] This means that whether particles are nanoparticle-sized or larger, the genotoxicity risk persists.
Maternal Exposure and Offspring Effects
Perhaps most disturbing, research shows that maternal exposure to titanium dioxide nanoparticles during gestation results in significantly elevated frequencies of DNA deletions in offspring.[4] This suggests the genotoxic effects may extend across generations—a finding with profound implications for women of childbearing age regularly consuming supplements containing this additive.
Understanding Genotoxicity
What is genotoxicity? Genotoxicity refers to a substance's ability to damage genetic information within cells. This damage can manifest as mutations, chromosomal breaks, or other alterations to DNA structure.
Why does it matter? Genotoxic substances can potentially lead to cancer development, inherited genetic disorders, and other serious health conditions. When regulatory agencies cannot establish a safe threshold for genotoxicity, the precautionary approach is to avoid exposure entirely.
The EFSA perspective: The panel concluded that because multiple mechanisms may contribute to titanium dioxide's genotoxicity, and because no threshold could be established below which no effect occurs, the additive cannot be considered safe at any consumption level.[1]
Organ Accumulation: Where Does It Go?
One of the most troubling aspects of titanium dioxide exposure is that these particles don't simply pass through your digestive system. Research consistently shows accumulation in multiple organs, raising questions about long-term exposure effects.
Evidence in Human Tissues
A groundbreaking study published in Particle and Fibre Toxicology provided the first quantification of titanium dioxide particles in post-mortem human liver and spleen tissues. Using sophisticated detection methods including single-particle inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry, researchers found TiO₂ particles present in all 15 examined liver and spleen samples.[5]
Key findings included:
- At least 24% of detected particles were nanoparticles (smaller than 100 nanometers)
- Particle sizes ranged from 85 to 720 nanometers
- Levels in some samples exceeded doses that caused liver effects in animal studies
- The presence was confirmed using both mass spectrometry and scanning electron microscopy
The researchers concluded that "health risks related to liver damage (i.e., liver edema and liver enzyme changes) due to TiO₂ particles still cannot be excluded."[5]
Distribution Pathways
Animal studies using radiolabeled titanium dioxide particles have mapped the distribution pathway following oral exposure. Research published in NanoImpact found that after a single oral dose, radioactivity could be detected in the liver within one hour, with levels in the spleen and kidneys increasing over the following week. Highest accumulations occurred in the liver (up to 95.5% of detected dose), followed by the spleen.[11]
A review in Nanotoxicology noted that "accumulation studies showed that Nano-TiO₂ exposure is able to cause injuries in various animal organs, including the lung, liver, spleen, and kidney."[12]
The Long Half-Life Problem
EFSA highlighted in their assessment that titanium dioxide particles have a long half-life in the body.[1] This means they're eliminated very slowly, allowing accumulation over time with chronic exposure. For someone taking daily supplements containing titanium dioxide, this creates a scenario of continuous buildup—even if each individual dose is small.
The Regulatory Gap: EU vs. FDA
The divergence between European and American regulatory approaches to titanium dioxide illuminates broader questions about food safety oversight and precautionary principles.
EU: Precautionary Approach
The European regulatory framework operates on the precautionary principle: if safety cannot be established, the substance is restricted. Following EFSA's 2021 conclusion that genotoxicity concerns could not be ruled out, the European Commission moved to ban E171 within months. The reasoning was straightforward—when you cannot establish a safe consumption level, allowing continued use is unjustifiable.[2]
Other countries have followed suit. Oman banned titanium dioxide in food products in 2023. Health Canada conducted its own review and, while not implementing an outright ban, noted ongoing evaluation of the evidence.[13]
FDA: Dated Standards, No Action
The FDA approved titanium dioxide for use in food in 1966, with the last substantive safety review conducted in 1973. Despite EFSA's findings, the FDA has not initiated a reassessment and continues to permit titanium dioxide use provided it does not exceed 1% of the finished product's weight.
In August 2022—the same month the EU ban took full effect—the FDA affirmed its position that titanium dioxide is safe when used according to current guidelines. This creates a remarkable situation where a substance deemed unsafe in Europe remains standard practice in American supplements.
Implications for Consumers
This regulatory divergence means American consumers must take personal responsibility for avoiding titanium dioxide if they share EFSA's safety concerns. Unlike in Europe, where the additive is simply absent from food products, U.S. consumers must actively read supplement labels and choose products from manufacturers who voluntarily exclude it.
| Region | Regulatory Status | Last Safety Review |
|---|---|---|
| European Union | Banned as food additive (August 2022) | 2021 (EFSA comprehensive assessment) |
| United States | Permitted (≤1% of product weight) | 1973 |
| Oman | Banned in food products (2023) | Following EFSA guidance |
| Canada | Permitted (under review) | Ongoing evaluation |
How to Identify Titanium Dioxide in Your Supplements
Avoiding titanium dioxide requires vigilant label reading. Manufacturers may list this ingredient under different names depending on the product type and labeling conventions.
Names to Watch For
Look for any of the following in ingredient lists:
- Titanium dioxide – the most common listing
- TiO₂ – chemical formula notation
- E171 – European food additive designation (may appear on imported products)
- CI 77891 – color index number used in cosmetics
- Pigment White 6 – industrial designation
Where It Hides
Titanium dioxide can appear in several sections of a supplement label:
Inactive/Other Ingredients: This is where most supplements list titanium dioxide, often alongside other fillers and flow agents.
Capsule/Coating Ingredients: Some supplements list capsule components separately. Titanium dioxide is common in tablet coatings and some capsule shells.
Color Additives: Since titanium dioxide functions as a whitening agent, it may be grouped with coloring ingredients.
Beyond Titanium Dioxide
If you're concerned about titanium dioxide, you should also watch for other common fillers that may compromise supplement quality:
- Microcrystalline cellulose (MCC) – a bulking agent with emerging gut health concerns
- Magnesium stearate – a flow agent that may affect nutrient absorption
- Silicon dioxide (silica) – another common anti-caking agent
- Talc – occasionally used as a filler with its own safety questions
Finding a probiotic without these additives requires either careful research or choosing brands that have made a clear commitment to filler-free formulations.
Our Filler-Free Philosophy
At BioPhysics Essentials, our decision to exclude titanium dioxide wasn't made in response to regulatory pressure—it was foundational to how we approach supplement formulation from the start.
The Science-First Standard
We believe every ingredient in a supplement should serve a purpose that benefits the person taking it. Titanium dioxide serves no nutritional function. It doesn't improve absorption, enhance efficacy, or contribute to your health in any way. It exists solely to make products look more appealing on store shelves.
When the scientific evidence raises concerns about an ingredient's safety—as it clearly does with titanium dioxide—we see no justification for including it simply because it's industry standard. Our commitment extends beyond titanium dioxide to encompass the full spectrum of common fillers and flow agents that other manufacturers consider acceptable.
What MicroBiome Restore Contains Instead
Rather than relying on synthetic fillers, MicroBiome Restore features:
26 Probiotic Strains: Including extensively researched species like Lactobacillus acidophilus, Bifidobacterium longum, Lactobacillus rhamnosus, and soil-based organisms like Bacillus subtilis—the same beneficial bacteria that titanium dioxide has been shown to harm.
9 Organic Prebiotics: Whole-food prebiotic sources including maitake mushroom, fig fruit, Jerusalem artichoke, and acacia gum that nourish beneficial bacteria naturally.
80+ Trace Minerals: From organic sea vegetables that support bacterial metabolism without competing for nutrients.
Pullulan Capsules: A fermented, prebiotic capsule material that provides delayed release to the large intestine while contributing to gut health—rather than undermining it.
Experience the Difference of Filler-Free Supplementation
MicroBiome Restore delivers comprehensive probiotic support without the additives that can undermine your gut health. No titanium dioxide. No microcrystalline cellulose. No magnesium stearate. Just science-backed ingredients that serve your microbiome.
Frequently Asked Questions
Is titanium dioxide in supplements dangerous?
The European Food Safety Authority concluded in 2021 that titanium dioxide can no longer be considered safe as a food additive due to genotoxicity concerns that could not be ruled out. Research shows it can damage DNA, reduce beneficial gut bacteria, and accumulate in organs like the liver and spleen. While the FDA still permits its use in the U.S., the weight of scientific evidence raises legitimate safety questions, particularly for chronic exposure through daily supplementation.
Why is titanium dioxide banned in Europe but not the U.S.?
The EU operates on a precautionary principle—if safety cannot be established, the substance is restricted. The FDA requires stronger evidence of harm before taking action. The FDA last reviewed titanium dioxide safety in 1973 and has not reassessed it despite EFSA's findings. This regulatory gap means American consumers must make individual decisions about avoidance.
How can I tell if my supplements contain titanium dioxide?
Check the "Other Ingredients" or "Inactive Ingredients" section of your supplement label. Look for "titanium dioxide," "TiO₂," "E171," or "CI 77891." It's also commonly found in tablet coatings and some capsule shells. If your supplement has an unnaturally bright white appearance, that's often a visual indicator that titanium dioxide was used.
Does titanium dioxide affect probiotic supplements specifically?
Research suggests titanium dioxide nanoparticles can decrease populations of beneficial bacteria including Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus—precisely the strains most probiotics aim to provide. If you're taking a probiotic containing titanium dioxide as a filler, you may be undermining the supplement's intended purpose by harming the very bacteria you're trying to introduce.
What should I look for in a titanium dioxide-free supplement?
Beyond simply avoiding titanium dioxide, look for supplements that exclude other common fillers like microcrystalline cellulose, magnesium stearate, and silicon dioxide. Check that the capsule material is also clean—pullulan capsules are a gut-friendly alternative to gelatin or HPMC capsules that may contain titanium dioxide in their composition.
Can I trust supplements that don't list titanium dioxide?
While absence from the ingredient list is a good sign, it's worth choosing brands that actively commit to filler-free formulation rather than those that simply happen not to use this particular additive. Look for companies that clearly articulate their philosophy about excipients and can explain why they exclude common fillers.
Conclusion: Making Informed Choices
The science on titanium dioxide has evolved dramatically since regulators first approved this additive decades ago. What was once assumed safe based on limited understanding has now revealed concerning effects on DNA integrity, gut microbiome composition, and organ accumulation. The European Union responded to this evidence by banning E171 outright—a decision affecting hundreds of millions of consumers.
In the United States, where regulatory action remains absent, the responsibility falls to individual consumers to evaluate the evidence and make informed choices. For those taking daily supplements—particularly probiotics intended to support gut health—continuing to consume titanium dioxide seems increasingly difficult to justify when safer alternatives exist.
At BioPhysics Essentials, we believe supplement formulation should prioritize your health over manufacturing convenience or aesthetic appeal. That's why MicroBiome Restore and all our products remain completely free of titanium dioxide, microcrystalline cellulose, magnesium stearate, and other common fillers. Every ingredient earns its place by contributing to your wellness—not just to our production efficiency.
Your supplement should support your health, not compromise it. The choice is yours to make.
References
- EFSA Panel on Food Additives and Flavourings (FAF), Younes, M., Aquilina, G., Castle, L., Engel, K. H., Fowler, P., ... & Wright, M. (2021). Safety assessment of titanium dioxide (E171) as a food additive. EFSA Journal, 19(5), e06585. https://doi.org/10.2903/j.efsa.2021.6585
- European Commission. (2022). Commission Regulation (EU) 2022/63 of 14 January 2022 amending Annexes II and III to Regulation (EC) No 1333/2008 of the European Parliament and of the Council as regards the food additive titanium dioxide (E 171). Official Journal of the European Union, L 11, 1-5. https://eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/reg/2022/63/oj
- Mu, W., Wang, Y., Huang, C., Fu, Y., Li, J., Wang, H., ... & Ba, Q. (2019). Effect of long-term intake of dietary titanium dioxide nanoparticles on intestine inflammation in mice. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 67(33), 9382-9389. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jafc.9b02391
- Trouiller, B., Reliene, R., Westbrook, A., Solaimani, P., & Schiestl, R. H. (2009). Titanium dioxide nanoparticles induce DNA damage and genetic instability in vivo in mice. Cancer Research, 69(22), 8784-8789. https://doi.org/10.1158/0008-5472.CAN-09-2496
- Peters, R. J., Oomen, A. G., van Bemmel, G., van Vliet, L., Undas, A. K., Munniks, S., ... & Bouwmeester, H. (2018). Detection of titanium particles in human liver and spleen and possible health implications. Particle and Fibre Toxicology, 15(1), 15. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12989-018-0251-7
- EFSA Panel on Food Additives and Nutrient Sources added to Food (ANS). (2019). Scientific opinion on the proposed amendment of the EU specifications for titanium dioxide (E 171) with respect to the inclusion of additional parameters related to its particle size distribution. EFSA Journal, 17(7), e05760. https://doi.org/10.2903/j.efsa.2019.5760
- Wang, J., Zhou, G., Chen, C., Yu, H., Wang, T., Ma, Y., ... & Zhao, Y. (2007). Acute toxicity and biodistribution of different sized titanium dioxide particles in mice after oral administration. Toxicology Letters, 168(2), 176-185. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.toxlet.2006.12.001
- Rinninella, E., Ferranti, E., Varchetta, A., Raoul, P., Cintoni, M., Mele, M. C., ... & Gasbarrini, A. (2021). Impact of food additive titanium dioxide on gut microbiota composition, microbiota-associated functions, and gut barrier: A systematic review of in vivo animal studies. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(4), 2008. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18042008
- Li, M., Li, F., Lu, Z., Fang, Y., Qu, J., Mao, T., ... & Zhang, Z. (2022). Intestinal toxicity of micro- and nano-particles of foodborne titanium dioxide in juvenile mice: Disorders of gut microbiota-host co-metabolites and intestinal barrier damage. Science of the Total Environment, 821, 153279. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.153279
- Chen, Z., Wang, Y., Ba, T., Li, Y., Pu, J., Chen, T., ... & Jia, G. (2014). Genotoxic evaluation of titanium dioxide nanoparticles in vivo and in vitro. Toxicology Letters, 226(3), 314-319. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.toxlet.2014.02.020
- Kreyling, W. G., Holzwarth, U., Schleh, C., Hirn, S., Wenk, A., Schäffler, M., ... & Gibson, N. (2017). Quantitative biokinetics of titanium dioxide nanoparticles after intravenous injection in rats: Part 1. NanoImpact, 6, 36-49. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.impact.2016.12.001
- Ma, Y., Yu, N., Lu, H., Shi, J., Zhang, Y., Chen, Z., & Jia, G. (2023). Titanium dioxide nanoparticles: Revealing the mechanisms underlying hepatotoxicity and effects in the gut microbiota. Archives of Toxicology, 97(8), 2051-2067. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00204-023-03536-x
- Naseer, F., Ahmad, W., Iqbal, U., Haider, A., Yousaf, S., Munawar, U., & Ahsan, S. (2024). The implications of the EU ban on titanium dioxide: A comprehensive review of safety concerns and alternatives. Archives of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, 6(4), 1-15. https://doi.org/10.33140/APT.06.04.01
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