Best Probiotics for Bad Breath: Evidence-Based Strains That Tackle Halitosis at the Source
What the peer-reviewed research says about oral probiotics—and which strains are clinically supported to reduce volatile sulfur compounds and rebalance the oral microbiome
Bad breath, or halitosis, is one of the most common and socially consequential health concerns in the world—affecting an estimated 31.8% of the global population, with reported rates reaching 55% in certain populations.[1] Yet despite how widespread it is, most people's approach to managing it stops at mouthwash, mints, and tongue scrapers. These interventions can temporarily mask oral odor, but they do not address its biological root cause.
The primary driver of chronic bad breath is not poor hygiene in isolation—it is microbial dysbiosis in the oral cavity. Certain anaerobic bacteria colonize the tongue dorsum, the gingival crevice, and the interdental spaces, where they break down sulfur-containing amino acids and proteins into volatile sulfur compounds (VSCs): hydrogen sulfide (H₂S), methyl mercaptan (CH₃SH), and dimethyl sulfide—the chemical culprits behind the offensive odor.[2] Until you change the bacterial ecology that generates these compounds, temporary masking agents are fighting a losing battle.
This is where oral probiotics come in. Rather than suppressing bacteria indiscriminately—as antiseptic mouthwashes do, often disrupting beneficial flora in the process—probiotics work by outcompeting pathogenic bacteria for attachment sites, producing bacteriocins that selectively inhibit VSC-generating species, and restoring a healthier oral microbial balance. The connection between gut health and body odor is something we've explored in our article on probiotics for body odor—but the oral microbiome is a distinct and particularly well-studied target.
This article examines the clinical evidence behind specific probiotic strains with documented activity against halitosis—focusing exclusively on strains found in MicroBiome Restore™ by BioPhysics Essentials. Not every probiotic genus has been studied for oral malodor; we are only covering strains where genuine evidence exists.
Key Takeaways
- Halitosis affects roughly 1 in 3 people globally and is primarily caused by anaerobic bacteria producing volatile sulfur compounds (VSCs) in the oral cavity—not simply poor hygiene.[1]
- Lactobacillus salivarius is one of the most-studied probiotic strains for halitosis. An open-label clinical trial found significant reductions in oral malodor parameters within just 2 weeks of daily supplementation.[3]
- Lactobacillus reuteri reduced oral malodor in a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled crossover trial, with significant improvements in organoleptic scores and VSC concentrations versus placebo.[4]
- Lactobacillus gasseri and L. paracasei together demonstrated significant reductions in H₂S and total VSC levels at both week 4 and week 12 in a 2025 randomized controlled trial.[5]
- A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials concluded that probiotics—including L. salivarius and L. reuteri—significantly reduced both organoleptic scores and VSC levels compared to placebo.[6]
- L. paracasei live cultures produced a significant decrease in breath VSC levels (p = 0.0148) versus placebo in a separate double-blind randomized controlled trial.[7]
- Formulation matters as much as strain selection. Probiotics packaged with synthetic flow agents and fillers like microcrystalline cellulose may undermine the very gut health they're meant to support.
What Actually Causes Bad Breath?
The vast majority of halitosis—approximately 90% of cases—originates inside the mouth itself.[8] The primary etiological mechanism is the anaerobic bacterial degradation of sulfur-containing proteins: as gram-negative anaerobes break down methionine, cysteine, and other sulfur amino acids in food debris, dead cells, and saliva, they release VSCs as metabolic byproducts. The key pathogenic bacteria involved include Porphyromonas gingivalis, Treponema denticola, Fusobacterium nucleatum, Prevotella intermedia, and Solobacterium moorei—organisms that thrive in the low-oxygen environments of the tongue coating, periodontal pockets, and interdental spaces.
This microbial origin has a critical implication: treatments that only address surface odor—mouthwash, breath mints, tongue scrapers—provide temporary relief at best. They may reduce VSC concentrations transiently, but within hours, the same pathogenic bacteria repopulate and resume VSC production. A sustainable approach requires shifting the microbial balance itself.
The VSC Triad: Understanding What Makes Breath Smell
Three volatile sulfur compounds are responsible for most oral malodor. Hydrogen sulfide (H₂S) produces the characteristic "rotten egg" smell and is the most prevalent. Methyl mercaptan (CH₃SH) has a more pungent, cabbage-like odor and is more strongly associated with periodontal disease. Dimethyl sulfide contributes a garbage-like quality and has both oral and systemic origins. Clinical trials measuring probiotic efficacy for halitosis use halimeters, gas chromatography devices, and organoleptic (smell panel) scores to quantify reductions in these compounds—and the most rigorous studies measure all three components independently.
The oral microbiome is also closely linked to gum disease: the same pathogens that generate VSCs also drive periodontal inflammation, creating a bidirectional relationship between halitosis and gum health. Addressing the microbial ecology of the mouth therefore carries benefits that extend well beyond breath freshness.
How Probiotics Work Against Oral Malodor
Probiotic bacteria act against halitosis through several complementary mechanisms—and understanding these mechanisms helps explain why certain strains work better than others for oral applications specifically.
Competitive exclusion is the primary mechanism. Probiotic strains with high oral adhesion capacity attach to the same receptor sites on the tongue epithelium and tooth surfaces that pathogenic bacteria would otherwise colonize. By occupying these sites first, beneficial bacteria crowd out VSC-producing pathogens without the need for broad-spectrum antimicrobial agents.[9]
Bacteriocin production gives certain probiotic strains direct antimicrobial firepower. Bacteriocins are narrow-spectrum antimicrobial peptides produced by lactic acid bacteria that can selectively inhibit specific pathogenic species without disrupting the broader commensal community. L. salivarius, for example, is known for its bacteriocin-producing capacity, with documented inhibitory activity against Porphyromonas gingivalis, Prevotella intermedia, and Aggregatibacter actinomycetemcomitans—three of the primary VSC-producing pathogens.[9]
Lactic acid and hydrogen peroxide production by probiotic bacteria lower the local pH and create an aerobic microenvironment hostile to the strict anaerobes responsible for VSC generation. Many periodontal pathogens cannot survive at lower pH or in the presence of hydrogen peroxide, giving probiotic bacteria an environmental advantage over time.
Immune modulation represents a longer-term mechanism. Chronic periodontal inflammation—driven by pathogenic bacteria—sustains the tissue breakdown and protein degradation that feeds VSC production. By regulating pro-inflammatory cytokines and supporting mucosal immune homeostasis, probiotic strains like L. reuteri and L. rhamnosus address the inflammatory underpinning of periodontitis-associated halitosis.[2]
Why Gut Probiotics Can Also Benefit Oral Health
While dedicated oral lozenges or tablets are one delivery format, swallowed probiotic capsules also interact with the oral cavity during transit and can influence the oral microbiome through systemic immune modulation and by altering the systemic cytokine environment. This means a comprehensive gut probiotic like MicroBiome Restore—containing strains with documented oral health activity—can support both the gut ecosystem and the oral microbiome simultaneously.
The Best Probiotic Strains for Bad Breath
Not every probiotic strain has been studied for halitosis. What follows is a strain-by-strain review of the evidence for species found in MicroBiome Restore™ that have genuine clinical or mechanistic support for reducing oral malodor. Strains without documented oral health activity have been excluded from this discussion.
Lactobacillus salivarius: The Most-Studied Oral Probiotic for Halitosis
Lactobacillus salivarius holds a uniquely relevant position in oral probiotic research: it is a naturally occurring inhabitant of the human oral cavity and has been studied more extensively for halitosis than almost any other probiotic species. Its natural colonization of the tongue and salivary glands gives it an inherent competitive advantage over pathogens in the oral environment.
An open-label clinical trial by Iwamoto and colleagues administered 2.0 × 10⁹ CFU of L. salivarius WB21 daily to 20 patients with genuine halitosis. By week 2, all 20 patients tested positive for L. salivarius DNA in their saliva—and oral malodor parameters had significantly decreased in patients with physiologic halitosis. By week 4, organoleptic test scores and bleeding on probing had both improved significantly in patients with pathologic halitosis linked to periodontal disease.[3]
A subsequent double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled crossover trial using L. salivarius WB21 confirmed measurable reductions in oral malodor scores, further validating the strain's clinical utility. A separate randomized clinical trial found that L. salivarius G60 combined with inulin reduced halitosis parameters in patients with tongue coating compared to placebo.[10]
The 2022 systematic review and meta-analysis by Ni and colleagues—the most comprehensive synthesis of halitosis probiotic data to date—identified L. salivarius as one of the strains with the strongest evidence for reducing VSC levels in the short term.[6] Explore the full evidence behind Lactobacillus salivarius benefits on our blog.
Lactobacillus reuteri: Bacteriocin Power Against Periodontal Pathogens
Lactobacillus reuteri produces two potent bacteriocins—reuterin and reutericyclin—that inhibit a wide range of gram-negative anaerobic pathogens including those responsible for both periodontal disease and VSC production.[2] This makes it particularly relevant for the subset of halitosis that is driven by, or coexists with, gum disease.
A randomized double-blind placebo-controlled crossover trial by Keller and colleagues tested L. reuteri DSM 17938 and ATCC PTA 5289 via chewing gum in 25 healthy young adults with self-reported morning bad breath. The intervention consisted of two 14-day periods with washout in between. Subjects chewing the probiotic gum showed significant improvements in organoleptic scores compared to those chewing placebo, alongside measurable reductions in VSC concentrations measured by Halimeter.[4]
Additional research has demonstrated that L. reuteri supplementation reduces pro-inflammatory cytokines (including TNF-α and IL-8) in the gingival crevicular fluid of patients with gingivitis—addressing the inflammatory component that sustains the tissue breakdown fueling VSC production.[2] Learn more about the broader clinical research on Lactobacillus reuteri benefits.
Lactobacillus gasseri and Lactobacillus paracasei: New Clinical Evidence
A 2025 randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial published in Probiotics and Antimicrobial Proteins tested a combination of Lactobacillus gasseri HHuMIN D and L. paracasei OK (branded as Complex OK) in 80 participants with confirmed halitosis and pathogenic oral bacteria. The 12-week trial found significant reductions in H₂S at week 4 (p < 0.05) and week 12 (p < 0.001) in the probiotic group, along with significant reductions in total VSC levels at both timepoints.[5] The mean VSC reduction in the experimental group (−2.83 ng/10 mL) was notably greater than in the placebo group (−1.28 ng/10 mL).
This is among the most rigorous halitosis trials to date given its 12-week duration—longer than most prior studies, which typically ran only 2–4 weeks. Both strains in this combination are present in MicroBiome Restore's 26-strain formula.
For L. paracasei specifically, a separate randomized double-blind placebo-controlled trial by Wuri and colleagues tested L. paracasei ET-22 live cultures and found a significant positive decrease in breath VSC levels versus placebo after four weeks (p = 0.0148), alongside measurable shifts in the oral microbiome profile.[7] A 2024 mechanistic follow-up study identified the primary active compounds responsible—postbiotic metabolites that suppressed biofilm biomass by 41.7% and reduced the abundance of Fusobacterium nucleatum and S. mutans within the biofilm.[11]
Lactobacillus plantarum: Broad-Spectrum Oral Pathogen Inhibition
Lactobacillus plantarum produces antimicrobial compounds called plantaricins, which have demonstrated inhibitory activity against oral pathogens including Tannerella forsythia—one of the key VSC-producing bacteria associated with halitosis and gum inflammation. A 2024 narrative review in Acta Odontologica Scandinavica confirmed that L. plantarum shows promise for managing non-communicable oral diseases including periodontal disease, with inhibitory effects on S. mutans biofilm formation and pathogen colonization.[12]
A comprehensive review on probiotic mechanisms in the oral cavity also highlighted that L. plantarum and related Lactobacillus species can inhibit the growth of periodontal pathogens such as Porphyromonas gingivalis, Prevotella intermedia, and Aggregatibacter actinomycetemcomitans—all of which are major contributors to VSC production.[2] Explore the full research on Lactobacillus plantarum health benefits.
Lactobacillus rhamnosus and Lactobacillus fermentum: Supporting Cast
While Lactobacillus rhamnosus is primarily known for its gut and immune benefits, a 2021 comprehensive review of probiotic mechanisms against oral pathogens confirmed that L. rhamnosus inhibits the growth of Porphyromonas gingivalis and related periodontopathic bacteria—providing indirect support for halitosis reduction by reducing the pathogen load responsible for VSC generation.[2] The evidence base for Lactobacillus rhamnosus for oral health is more mechanistic than directly clinical for halitosis, but its anti-inflammatory and pathogen-inhibiting properties contribute meaningfully to a comprehensive oral health strategy.
Lactobacillus fermentum has been identified as one of the oral Lactobacillus species with documented antibacterial activity against P. gingivalis—one of the primary VSC-producing periodontal pathogens—making it a relevant supporting strain in a multi-strain formula targeting oral health.[13]
The takeaway across all strains: a multi-strain approach that includes the most-studied species (L. salivarius, L. reuteri, L. gasseri, L. paracasei) alongside complementary species (L. plantarum, L. rhamnosus, L. fermentum) provides broader coverage of the mechanisms through which probiotics combat oral malodor.
| Strain | Primary Mechanism Against Halitosis | Key Evidence |
|---|---|---|
| L. salivarius | Bacteriocin production; competitive exclusion of VSC-producing pathogens | Significant malodor reduction at 2 weeks (open-label trial)[3]; named in meta-analysis as top halitosis strain[6] |
| L. reuteri | Reuterin/reutericyclin bacteriocins; anti-inflammatory cytokine modulation | Significant organoleptic + VSC reduction vs. placebo (DB-RCT)[4] |
| L. gasseri | Oral pathogen inhibition; VSC-producing bacteria reduction | Significant H₂S and total VSC reductions at week 4 and 12 (12-week DB-RCT)[5] |
| L. paracasei | Biofilm disruption; oral microbiome rebalancing | Significant VSC reduction vs. placebo in two independent RCTs[5][7] |
| L. plantarum | Plantaricin antimicrobials; periodontal pathogen inhibition | Inhibits Tannerella forsythia and other VSC producers; biofilm disruption[12] |
| L. rhamnosus | Inhibits P. gingivalis; anti-inflammatory | Periodontal pathogen inhibition documented in multiple studies[2] |
| L. fermentum | Antibacterial activity against P. gingivalis | Oral pathogen inhibition confirmed in clinical isolate studies[13] |
All Seven Strains. One Filler-Free Formula.
MicroBiome Restore™ contains every strain discussed above—plus 19 additional evidence-backed species—in a 15 billion CFU daily serving. No microcrystalline cellulose. No magnesium stearate. No titanium dioxide.
What to Look for in a Probiotic for Bad Breath
Given the growing market for oral health probiotics, it is increasingly important to evaluate products critically. Here's what the evidence says actually matters—and what to watch out for.
Strain Specificity Over Genus
A review published in Frontiers in Microbiology specifically cautioned that as the oral care probiotic market expands, many products contain bacterial species and strains with no documented health benefits, leading to confusion among consumers and clinicians.[14] Probiotic efficacy is strain-specific—a genus name on a label (e.g., "Lactobacillus") without the species and ideally the strain designation tells you very little about clinical utility. Look for products that list specific species like L. salivarius, L. reuteri, L. gasseri, and L. paracasei—the strains with the strongest halitosis-specific evidence.
Multi-Strain Formulas Provide Broader Coverage
The mechanisms by which probiotics combat halitosis are diverse—competitive exclusion, bacteriocin production, biofilm disruption, immune modulation. No single strain excels at all of them. A multi-strain probiotic formula that includes multiple Lactobacillus species with complementary mechanisms provides broader coverage of the pathways through which oral dysbiosis leads to bad breath.
Clean Formulation: The Hidden Problem with Most Probiotics
Many commercial probiotics are loaded with inactive ingredients that serve manufacturing convenience rather than your health. Microcrystalline cellulose (MCC) is used as a filler and binder but carries emerging concerns about its effects on the intestinal mucosa. Magnesium stearate is a flow agent with potential effects on bacterial membrane integrity and immune modulation. Titanium dioxide, commonly added for whitening, has been flagged by regulatory bodies in Europe.
Understanding how to read probiotic supplement labels to identify hidden fillers is essential. For a primer on the worst offenders, our article on flow agents and fillers in probiotics covers the science in detail.
Capsule Material Matters
The capsule encasing a probiotic can either protect the bacteria through stomach acid or allow premature degradation that significantly reduces viable CFU delivery. Pullulan capsules—made from fermented tapioca—offer delayed-release properties and are themselves prebiotic, providing a small functional benefit beyond mere encapsulation. MicroBiome Restore uses pullulan capsules exclusively.
What to Look For vs. What to Avoid
Look for: Specific species names (not just genus); L. salivarius, L. reuteri, L. gasseri, L. paracasei included; multi-strain formula with 10+ strains; prebiotic fiber included; pullulan or similar delayed-release capsule; filler-free formulation with a clean inactive ingredient label.
Avoid: Vague genus-only labeling; microcrystalline cellulose or magnesium stearate in the inactive ingredients; titanium dioxide; proprietary blends that hide individual strain CFU counts; single-strain formulas for a multi-mechanism problem.
CFU Count in Context
Clinical trials demonstrating halitosis benefits have used doses ranging from around 1 × 10⁸ to 2 × 10⁹ CFU per strain. MicroBiome Restore delivers 15 billion CFU total across 26 strains—providing clinically relevant levels across a diverse bacterial community. Higher CFU is not always better; strain diversity and delivery integrity matter as much as raw numbers.
The Role of Prebiotics
Prebiotics are non-digestible fibers that selectively feed beneficial bacteria—and a randomized clinical trial found that combining L. salivarius G60 with inulin (a prebiotic fiber) produced greater reductions in halitosis parameters than the probiotic alone, with statistically significant improvements in organoleptic scores and quality of life outcomes.[10] MicroBiome Restore includes nine organic prebiotic ingredients—among them Jerusalem artichoke (a rich inulin source), maitake mushroom, fig fruit, bladderwrack, Norwegian kelp, oarweed, and acacia fiber—providing the substrate these probiotic strains need to establish and sustain colonization.
The Gut–Oral Microbiome Connection
It may seem counterintuitive to take a gut probiotic to address a problem that's happening in your mouth. But the gut and oral microbiome are not isolated systems—they are the two ends of the same continuous mucosal surface, the gastrointestinal tract, and they influence each other in ways that the research is only beginning to fully characterize.
Systemic inflammation driven by gut dysbiosis can amplify the inflammatory environment in the oral cavity, worsening periodontal disease and the bacterial overgrowth responsible for VSC production. Conversely, pathogenic oral bacteria can be swallowed and colonize the gut, with P. gingivalis in particular linked to gut microbiome disruption and systemic inflammatory conditions.[9]
By supporting a healthy gut microbiome with strains that also have direct oral cavity activity, a comprehensive probiotic like MicroBiome Restore addresses both ends of this loop. The oral colonization capacity of L. salivarius combined with the gut barrier-supporting activity of strains like L. rhamnosus, L. acidophilus, and Bifidobacterium longum creates a microbiome support strategy that is more comprehensive than any dedicated oral product alone can provide.
It is also worth noting that some cases of halitosis are not of oral origin at all—they are driven by gut dysbiosis, GERD, or systemic conditions that create gases absorbed into the bloodstream and exhaled through the lungs. For individuals whose bad breath persists despite excellent oral hygiene, gut-focused probiotic support becomes especially relevant. If you suspect this may be a factor, our article on probiotics for SIBO covers the gut microbiome disruptions most associated with non-oral halitosis.
When Halitosis May Signal Something More
While the majority of bad breath is caused by oral bacterial dysbiosis, persistent halitosis that does not respond to oral hygiene improvements and probiotic support may warrant evaluation for underlying conditions including GERD, SIBO, chronic sinusitis, kidney dysfunction, or diabetes. Probiotics are a powerful evidence-based tool for microbiome-driven halitosis—but they are not a substitute for a proper clinical evaluation if oral causes have been ruled out.
Frequently Asked Questions
How long does it take for probiotics to help with bad breath?
Clinical trials have documented measurable reductions in oral malodor parameters as early as two weeks with consistent daily supplementation. The open-label trial using L. salivarius WB21 found significant improvements in physiologic halitosis at the two-week mark, while improvements in pathologic halitosis-related parameters were measurable by week four.[3] The 12-week RCT using L. gasseri and L. paracasei found that benefits continued to grow through the end of the trial, suggesting that sustained supplementation may yield compounding effects.[5] Realistic expectations: noticeable improvement within 2–4 weeks, with continued progression over 8–12 weeks of consistent use.
Do I need a specialized oral probiotic, or can a gut probiotic help bad breath?
Several of the most clinically studied halitosis strains—including L. salivarius, L. reuteri, L. gasseri, and L. paracasei—are also among the most commonly studied gut probiotic strains. A high-quality multi-strain gut probiotic that includes these species can meaningfully support oral health, particularly when it provides systemic immune modulation that addresses the inflammatory component of gum disease–associated halitosis. Dedicated oral lozenges or tablets provide more direct contact with oral tissues, which may be advantageous for localized colonization; however, the research does not conclusively show one delivery format is superior to the other for all cases.
Can probiotics replace mouthwash for bad breath?
Probiotics and antiseptic mouthwash work through fundamentally different mechanisms. Mouthwash (particularly chlorhexidine-based products) kills bacteria broadly and temporarily—but does not restore microbial balance and can disrupt the beneficial oral flora you want to preserve. Probiotics work to restore that balance sustainably. The most evidence-based approach for persistent halitosis is to reduce or eliminate broad-spectrum antiseptic rinses (which undermine oral microbiome diversity) and replace them with probiotic support. Standard fluoride toothbrushing and mechanical hygiene remain important complements.
Are there probiotics that make bad breath worse?
Transient changes in oral or digestive symptoms during the first one to two weeks of starting a new probiotic are common as the microbiome adjusts. These rarely manifest as worsening breath and typically resolve quickly. The more significant risk is choosing a probiotic that contains strains with no documented benefit for oral health combined with synthetic fillers that may irritate the gut mucosa. Choosing formulas with clean inactive ingredient panels—free of microcrystalline cellulose and other problematic additives—minimizes this risk.
Does the MicroBiome Restore formula include the strains studied for halitosis?
Yes. MicroBiome Restore's 26-strain, 15 billion CFU formula includes Lactobacillus salivarius, Lactobacillus reuteri, Lactobacillus gasseri, Lactobacillus paracasei, Lactobacillus plantarum, Lactobacillus rhamnosus, and Lactobacillus fermentum—every strain discussed in this article with documented activity against oral malodor. The formula is filler-free and encapsulated in pullulan capsules for optimal delivery. Learn more in our complete guide to MicroBiome Restore.
Addressing Bad Breath Where It Starts: The Microbiome
The research is consistent: bad breath is fundamentally a microbial problem, and addressing it requires a microbial solution. Mints and mouthwash buy time; probiotics change the underlying ecology. The strains with the strongest clinical evidence—L. salivarius, L. reuteri, L. gasseri, L. paracasei—share a common thread: they competitively displace the anaerobic pathogens that generate VSCs, produce bacteriocins that selectively target those pathogens, and modulate the inflammatory environment that sustains pathogen-friendly conditions in the gingival crevice and tongue coating.
The most practical path forward for most people experiencing chronic or persistent bad breath is a multi-strain probiotic containing these evidence-backed species, combined with organic prebiotics to support their colonization, packaged without the synthetic fillers that undermine gut and mucosal health. That is precisely the formulation philosophy behind MicroBiome Restore™—a filler-free, 26-strain formula built around clinical evidence rather than manufacturing convenience.
26 Strains. 9 Organic Prebiotics. Zero Fillers.
MicroBiome Restore™ delivers 15 billion CFU of comprehensive probiotic support in a pullulan capsule—with no microcrystalline cellulose, no magnesium stearate, and no titanium dioxide. Every ingredient earns its place.
References
- Neophytou, C., & Davidopoulou, S. (2025). Effectiveness of Probiotics in Managing Oral Halitosis: A Systematic Review of Randomized Controlled Trials. Journal of International Society of Preventive and Community Dentistry, 15(4), 301–312. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12425399/
- Karbalaei, M., Keikha, M., Kobyliak, N. M., Zadeh, M. R., Yousefi, B., & Eslami, M. (2021). Alleviation of halitosis by use of probiotics and their protective mechanisms in the oral cavity. New Microbes and New Infections, 42, 100887. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nmni.2021.100887
- Iwamoto, T., Suzuki, N., Tanabe, K., Takeshita, T., & Hirofuji, T. (2010). Effects of probiotic Lactobacillus salivarius WB21 on halitosis and oral health: an open-label pilot trial. Oral Surgery, Oral Medicine, Oral Pathology, Oral Radiology, and Endodontology, 110(2), 201–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tripleo.2010.03.032
- Keller, M. K., Bardow, A., Jensdottir, T., Lykkeaa, J., & Twetman, S. (2012). Effect of chewing gums containing the probiotic bacterium Lactobacillus reuteri on oral malodour. Acta Odontologica Scandinavica, 70(3), 246–250. https://doi.org/10.3109/00016357.2011.640281
- Choi, J. H., Song, S., Jang, M. J., Haque, M. A., Lee, H. E., Kim, D. H., ... & Ku, S. (2025). A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study on probiotic treatment for halitosis: Novel insights into glucose and phosphorus metabolism. Probiotics and Antimicrobial Proteins. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12602-025-10603-5
- Ni, H., Li, J., Qin, X., Wang, Y., & Wang, C. (2022). Efficacy of probiotics in the management of halitosis: a systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ Open, 13(1), e060753. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2022-060753
- Wuri, G., Liu, F., Sun, Z., Fang, B., Zhao, W., Hung, W. L., Liu, W. H., Zhang, X., Wang, R., Wu, F., & Zhang, M. (2023). Lactobacillus paracasei ET-22 and derived postbiotics reduce halitosis and modulate oral microbiome dysregulation—a randomized, double-blind placebo-controlled clinical trial. Food & Function, 14, 7335. https://doi.org/10.1039/D3FO01584J
- López-Valverde, N., López-Valverde, A., Ramírez, J. M., & Flores-Fraile, J. (2021). Role of probiotics in halitosis of oral origin: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized clinical studies. Frontiers in Nutrition, 8, 787908. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnut.2021.787908
- Chen, T., Yoo, C., & Park, S. (2024). Probiotics for oral health: a critical evaluation of bacterial strains. Frontiers in Microbiology, 15, 1430810. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2024.1430810
- Mousquer, C. R., Della Bona, A., Milani, D. C., Callegari-Jacques, S. M., Ishikawa, K., & Mayer, M. P. A. (2020). Are Lactobacillus salivarius G60 and inulin more efficacious to treat patients with oral halitosis and tongue coating than the probiotic alone and placebo? A randomized clinical trial. Journal of Periodontology, 91(6), 775–783. https://doi.org/10.1002/JPER.19-0089
- Liu, Y., Fang, B., Wuri, G., Lan, H., Wang, R., Sun, Y., Zhao, W., Hung, W. L., & Zhang, M. (2024). From biofilm to breath: the role of Lacticaseibacillus paracasei ET-22 postbiotics in combating oral malodor. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 72(49), 27203–27214. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jafc.4c07381
- Shi, J., Zhou, H., & Lyu, W. (2024). The role of Lactobacillus plantarum in oral health: a review of current studies. Acta Odontologica Scandinavica, 82(8), 573–586. https://doi.org/10.1080/00016357.2024.2411815
- Etebarian, L., Shahriari, A., & Akbari, S. (2023). Oral Lactobacillus species and their probiotic capabilities in patients with periodontitis and periodontally healthy individuals. Clinical and Experimental Dental Research, 9(2), 294–305. https://doi.org/10.1002/cre2.740
- Chen, T., Yoo, C., & Park, S. (2024). Probiotics for oral health: a critical evaluation of bacterial strains. Frontiers in Microbiology, 15, 1430810. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2024.1430810
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